Portable Art From Upper Paleolithic Period

Portable art (known as mobiliary art or art mobilier in French) typically refers to objects carved during the European Upper Paleolithic period (40,000-20,000 years ago) that can be moved or carried as personal objects. The oldest example of portable art, however, is from Africa nearly 100,000 years older than anything in Europe. Further, ancient art is found around the globe far from Europe: the category has had to expand to serve the data that have been collected. Categories of Paleolithic Art Traditionally, Upper Paleolithic art is divided into two broad categories--parietal (or cave) art, including the paintings at Lascaux, Chauvet, and Nawarla Gabarnmang; and mobiliary (or portable art), meaning art that can be carried, such as the famous Venus figurines. Portable art consists of objects carved from stone, bone, or antler, and they take a wide variety of forms. Small, three-dimensional sculpted objects such as the widely known Venus figurines, carved animal bone tools, and two-dimensional relief carvings or plaques are all forms of portable art. Figurative and Non-Figurative Two classes of portable art are recognized today: figurative and non-figurative. Figurative portable art includes three-dimensional animal and human sculptures, but also figures carved, engraved, or painted on stones, ivory, bones, reindeer antlers, and other media. Non-figurative art includes abstract drawings carved, incised, pecked or painted in patterns of grids, parallel lines, dots, zigzag lines, curves, and filigrees. Portable art objects are made by a wide variety of methods, including grooving, hammering, incising, pecking, scraping, polishing, painting, and staining. Evidence of these ancient art forms can be quite subtle, and one reason for the broadening of the category well beyond Europe is that with the advent of optical and scanning electron microscopy, many more examples of art have been discovered. Oldest Portable Art The oldest portable art discovered to date is from South Africa and made 134,000 years ago, consisting of a piece of scored ochre at Pinnacle Point Cave. Other pieces of ochre with engraved designs include one from Klasies River cave 1 at 100,000 years ago, and Blombos cave, where engraved designs on 17 pieces of ochre were retrieved, the oldest dated to 100,000-72,000 years ago. Ostrich eggshell was first known to have been used as a medium for engraved portable art in southern Africa at Diepkloof Rockshelter and Klipdrift Shelter in South Africa and Apollo 11 cave in Namibia between 85-52,000. The earliest figurative portable art in South Africa is from the Apollo 11 cave, where seven portable stone (schist) plaques were recovered, made approximately 30,000 years ago. These plaques include drawings of rhinoceros, zebras, and humans, and possibly human-animal beings (called therianthropes). These images are painted with brown, white, black and red pigments made of a wide variety of substances, including red ochre, carbon, white clay, black manganese, white ostrich eggshell, hematite, and gypsum. Oldest in Eurasia The oldest figurines in Eurasia are ivory figurines dated to the Aurignacian period between 35,000-30,000 years ago in the Lone and Ach valleys in Swabian alps. Excavations at the Vogelherd Cave recovered several small ivory figurines of several animals; Geissenklà ¶sterle cave contained more than 40 pieces of ivory. Ivory figurines are widespread in the Upper Paleolithic, extending well into central Eurasia and Siberia. The earliest portable art object recognized by archaeologists was the Neschers antler, a 12,500-year-old reindeer antler with a stylized partial figure of a horse carved in the surface in left profile. This object was found at Neschers, an open-air Magdalenian settlement in Auvergne region of France and recently discovered within the British Museum collections. It was likely part of the archaeological materials excavated from the site between 1830 and 1848. Why Portable Art? Why our ancient ancestors made portable art so very long ago is unknown and realistically unknowable. However, there are plenty of possibilities that are interesting to contemplate. During the mid-twentieth century, archaeologists and art historians explicitly connected portable art to shamanism. Scholars compared the use of portable art by modern and historical groups and recognized that portable art, specifically figural sculpture, was often related to folklore and religious practices. In ethnographic terms, portable art objects could be considered amulets or totems: for a while, even terms like rock art were dropped from the literature, because it was considered dismissive of the spiritual component that was attributed to the objects. In a fascinating set of studies beginning in the late 1990s, David Lewis-Williams made the explicit connection between ancient art and shamanism when he suggested that abstract elements on rock art are similar to those images seen by people in visions during altered states of consciousness. Other Interpretations A spiritual element may well have been involved with some portable art objects, but wider possibilities have since been put forward by archaeologists and art historians, such as portable art as personal ornamentation, toys for children, teaching tools, or objects expressing personal, ethnic, social, and cultural identity. For example, in an attempt to look for cultural patterns and regional similarities, Rivero and Sauvet looked at a large set of representations of horses on portable art made from bone, antler, and stone during the Magdalenian period in northern Spain and southern France. Their research revealed a handful of traits that seem to be particular to regional groups, including the use of double manes and prominent crests, traits that persist through time and space. Recent Studies Other recent studies include that of Danae Fiore, who studied the rate of decoration used on bone harpoon heads and other artifacts from Tierra del Fuego, during three periods dated between 6400-100 BP. She found that the decoration of harpoon heads increased when sea mammals (pinnipeds) were a key prey for the people; and decreased when there was an increase in consumption of other resources (fish, birds, guanacos). Harpoon design during this time was widely variable, which Fiore suggests were created through a free cultural context or fostered through a social requirement of individual expression. Lemke and colleagues reported more than 100 incised stones at the Clovis-Early Archaic layers of the Gault site in Texas, dated 13,000-9,000 cal BP. They are among the earliest art objects from a secure context in North America. The nonfigurative decorations include geometric parallel and perpendicular lines inscribed on limestone tablets, chert flakes, and cobbles. Sources Abadà ­a, Oscar Moro. Paleolithic Art: A Cultural History. Journal of Archaeological Research, Manuel R. Gonzà ¡lez Morales, Volume 21, Issue 3, SpringerLink, January 24, 2013. Bello SM, Delbarre G, Parfitt SA, Currant AP, Kruszynski R, and Stringer CB. Lost and found: the remarkable curatorial history of one of the earliest discoveries of Palaeolithic portable art. Antiquity 87(335):237-244. Farbstein R. The Significance of Social Gestures and Technologies of Embellishment in Paleolithic Portable Art. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 18(2):125-146. Fiore D. Art in time. Diachronic rates of change in the decoration of bone artifacts from the Beagle Channel region (Tierra del Fuego, Southern South America). Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 30(4):484-501. Lemke AK, Wernecke DC, and Collins MB. Early Art in North America: Clovis and Later Paleoindian Incised Artifacts from the Gault Site, Texas (41bl323). American Antiquity 80(1):113-133. Lewis-Williams JD. Agency, art, and altered consciousness: A motif in French (Quercy) Upper Paleolithic parietal art. Antiquity 71:810-830. Moro Abadà ­a O, and Gonzà ¡lez Morales MR. Towards a genealogy of the concept of paleolithic mobiliary art. Journal of Anthropological Research 60(3):321-339. Rifkin RF, Prinsloo LC, Dayet L, Haaland MM, Henshilwood CS, Diz EL, Moyo S, Vogelsang R, and Kambombo F. Characterising pigments on 30 000-year-old portable art from Apollo 11 Cave, Karas Region, southern Namibia. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 5:336-347. Rivero O, and Sauvet G. Defining Magdalenian cultural groups in Franco-Cantabria by the formal analysis of portable artworks. Antiquity 88(339):64-80. Roldà ¡n Garcà ­a C, Villaverde Bonilla V, Rà ³denas Marà ­n I, and Murcia Mascarà ³s S. A Unique Collection of Palaeolithic Painted Portable Art: Characterization of Red and Yellow Pigments from the Parpallà ³ Cave (Spain). PLOS ONE 11(10):e0163565. Volkova YS. Upper Paleolithic Portable Art in Light of Ethnographic Studies. Archaeology, Ethnology, and Anthropology of Eurasia 40(3):31-37.

Should Prostitution Be Legalized - 889 Words

Prostitution has been described as one of the oldest professions know to man. Although women inparticular have had the ability to sell their bodies in order to gain assets doing so has not only been frowned upon but illegal. Some find this option as a last resort. They have depleted resources and don’t know where else to turn. Many argue that morally prostitution is wrong and they may have merit in saying so. Despite this prostitution should be legalized not only because women should have the right to do what they want with their bodies but also in order to better protect the people who decide to pursue this practice. A concern that distresses a majority of people regarding prostitution is the â€Å"psychological damage† that can be caused by selling oneself. This argument is validated by the statistics produced by prostitutes. They are not only more likely to commit suicide(almost six times the normal rate of an average American)but are more likely to struggle with de pression and insomnia. They also often reported that they felt guilt and remorse after selling sex. This is all pretty convincing evidence that prostitution does cause psychological issues but maybe the issues come from the stigma that is attached to prostitution and not prostitution itself. To explain this more accurately I would like to look at the homosexual population. In Moen’s article â€Å"Is prostitution harmful?† he goes into detail about the gay community and their psychological well being. BeforeShow MoreRelatedShould Prostitution Be Legalized?1406 Words   |  6 PagesProstitution is one of the largest controversial issue facing the United States. The definition of prostitution, according to Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary, is the act or practice of engaging in sexual relations especially for the money. Prostitution has been constantly bashed by the media and is currently legal in only one state. In this state, only one county has banned prostitution. Why is it illegal? What is wrong with prostitution that has made it illegal? These are the important questions thatRead MoreShould Prostitution Be Legalized?1048 Words   |  5 PagesWalker May,15,2015 Should prostitution be legalized? Most of us have heard of prostitution and the controversial opinions of people whether it should be legalized or not. The fact is that prostitution has been practiced for many years regardless of its legality. As defined in the dictionary prostitution is the exchange of sex for money. Out of the 50 states in the U.S., Nevada is the only states were prostitution is legal. On the other hand, in some European countries prostitution is not illegal andRead MoreShould Prostitution Be Legalized?1111 Words   |  5 PagesProstitution has been around for a very long time. There has been great debates over the last few decades about prostitution law reform. It is accepted by some, denied by others, or just forbidden. Prostitution is that one thing that people do and does not get brought up for discussion after the fact. It is what some people call dirty and distasteful. But prostitution whether legalized or not will continue to happen. I will argue that prostitution should be legalized becaus e it would bring more benefitRead MoreShould Prostitution be Legalized?1658 Words   |  7 PagesProstitution is an issue that has been debated in many countries. 22 countries have legalized prostitution. In the United States, prostitution is only legal in 11 rural counties in Nevada. It used to be legal in Rhode Island due to a loophole, but since 2009, it has been illegal. Women are not the only ones who are prostitutes, about 20 to 30% of prostitutes are male, which means both genders are affected by laws against prostitution. Men and women should be allowed to choose how they want to useRead MoreProstitution Should Be Legalized?1072 Words   |  5 PagesProstitution in America Some consider prostitution to be evil, sin incarnated. They believe that the act of fornication with an unknown and unloved person is unholy and should be punishable. They may believe that those who are prostitutes are not human, but instead creatures that have given into their most primal lust. To give into the carnal temptation of sex, and to resolve it through means that are not considered normal, sentences one to eternal damnation. Or so some believe, and I respect theirRead MoreShould Prostitution Be Legalized?1663 Words   |  7 PagesDecriminalizing prostitution in the United States will be a hazard to the nation. Prostitution has been often called one of the oldest jobs in the world. However, it has been illegal in nearly all societies throughout history. 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Prostitution is defined as the engaging in, or agreeing to engage in, sexual conduct for a fee. Women are pushed into entering prostitution for many reasons including lack of education, poverty, and personal choice. Prostitution is currently illegal, but there is much controversy surrounding this issue. Picture in your mind this scenario: Jane is a 26 year old single woman who makes her living working the streets as a prostitute. She is clean, and is tested regularlyRead MoreShould Prostitution Be Legalized?1537 Words   |  7 PagesProfessor Petretto English 111 15 Nov. 2016 Should Prostitution be Legalized? Prostitution has been and may always be one of the most controversial topics in the United States. While there are some who argue that prostitution should be legalized, others do not agree with this theory. Some advocates argue that prostitution is a victimless crime and that it should be a decision that one chooses on his or her own. They also believe that the legalization of prostitution will minimize crime, increase tax revenueRead MoreShould Prostitution Be Legalized?1411 Words   |  6 PagesShould prostitution be Legalized? Whether or not prostitution should be legalized is, for some, a morally plagued question. The value society puts on sex can directly affect whether or not legalization will be considered. Even within Europe there is a drift. While France has banned prostitution it is legal in Germany, and has been since 2002. Is France morally outstanding, or is there something more to prostitution then what generally thought? The legalization of prostitution will affect many other

Greasy Lake free essay sample

There comes a time in every young mans life for him to break a barrier of reality to go from invincibility to mortality. They have to take that leap forward gradually, but as they do they will make mistakes along the way and have to learn from the bad ones. The short story â€Å"Greasy Lake† by T. Coraghessan Boyle is about three young men who have to break that barrier of reality in one horrible night by making mistake after mistake, only they have to learn from their mistakes quickly or they wont get out of their bad situation. There are two different symbols, themes, and characters that have meaning to it in this story. The symbols are the key being lost, and the water itself signifies a rebirth. The themes that are seen in this story are that the point of view was told from an older person looking back at his younger years and that he would have to learn from the mistakes of the past. The characters that have meanings to them are the main character and Bobby (the bad guy). Three wanna be bad characters made their main mistake of the night by driving out to Greasy Lake, a place everyone went to hang out. When they arrived they saw what appeared to be their friends car parked so they began flashing their headlights and honking the horn. When the main character gets out of the car he drops the key to the car and there is a dramatic feeling that comes over him, Boyle really explains it well when the character explains how he feels at that moment. The first mistake, the one that opened the whole floodgate, was losing my grip on the keys. In the excitement, leaping from the car with the gin in one hand and a roach clip in the other, I spilled them in the grass-in the dark, rank, mysterious nighttime grass of Greasy Lake. This was tactical error, as damaging and irreversible in its way as Westmorelands decision to dig in at Khe Sanh. I felt it like a jab of intuition, and I stopped there by the open door, peering vaguely into the night that puddled up round my feet. Boyle is showing how the character is worried that the keys are lost in the dark, rank, mysterious nighttime grass and its going to be hard to find them if at all in that and its all his fault that they wont be able to escape the fate they are about to encounter. In Michael Walkers article about the symbol of losing the key he explains how it was,†this [loss of the car keys] was a tactical error, as damaging and irreversible†(3). He also explains how Boyle compares the loss of the keys in the dirty water and the dark night as being in the Vietnam War(3). The character could have at least tried to find the keys, but instead he went to mess with the guy he thought was his friend in the car, they all got into a fight with this bad guy who gets out of the car. The main character hits the guy over the head with a tire iron and they all think he is dead. They all three attempt raping the bad characters girlfriend until a car pulls up,they run to the car until they remember the keys are still lost. Then they are all on their own. The consequence the main character has to overcome is him running and hiding from the people who came upon him and his friends as they were raping the bad characters girlfriend. The Greasy Lake, although it was filled with insects, and foul odors. Although thinking they wouldnt find him there, he ran knee deep into the Greasy Lake. MaterplotsII explains, â€Å"narrators submersion into the lake, in his fear and guilt, amounts to a ritual baptism; the fetid waters are appropriate to his â€Å"†filthy†Ã¢â‚¬  moral condition†(2). The water and being baptized can mean being a new person in religious terms if you go to church it means your no longer with sin, so when he bumps into the dead body the meaning is for him to see death, and when he goes under water he comes up a new person reborn. Although while in the water he overhears the bad character he thought he killed by hitting over the head with a tire iron; get up and threaten to come and find him and his friends, but instead the bad character (Bobby) demolishes his (main characters) mothers car. The whole time the main haracter stays hiding in the disgusting waters of the Greasy Lake. Thinking back once again if he wouldnt have lost the keys his â€Å"grail and salvation†(MasterplotsII). A lot of times older people will tell stories from their childhood of how they did so many foolish things and had such fun doing them that sometimes they get carried away with their stories and will take them out of context, for example in Masterplots II it says, â€Å"Were it not for the storys obvious dual point of view- an older, mature narrator looking back at his foolish ounger self†(2). The only way to learn from mistakes is to make them, and then learn from them. In this story its clear that it is being told by an older more mature adult that has already learned quite a few things from no doubt some of their mistakes, in Greasy Lake it seems as though this guy goes through mistake after mistake. First he looses his car key, then gets kicked in the face, tries to rape a girl, runs into the dirty lake where he bumps into a dead corpse, but from the time he goes under the water he seems to come up a different person. He has learned something from all his trouble, he doesnt want to act bad anymore by getting out of the water to fight the bad guy (Bobby), he stays in the water until he hears him leave, even though he hears him wrecking his mothers car. Then when he realizes he is not a bad character, its clear to come out he realizes it is dawn and the light reveals the key that was lost, they rejected the drugs that were offered to them, showing some sort of sign that they are not such bad characters anymore, then they get into the main characters moms car realizing that the bad guy (Bobby), could have totally demolished the car then they would have never been able to have left the Greasy Lake, so they were overjoyed. The two main characters that have symbolic meanings are the narrator and the bad guy (Bobby). The narrator is looking back from his older, more mature age. His inflated, often ironic rhetoric heightens the storys humor. Despite its many slapstick elements, the incident serves as a kind of initiation rite for the participants. After a series of stupid mistakes, the narrator comes close to actually being the â€Å"bad character† he only previously mimicked: Then stumbling through the stagnant water, the narrator discovers the body of a drowned biker, an experience he describes as one of lifes inescapable â€Å"nasty little epiphanies† (Literature Resource Center). Which he lives in this one night of mistakes and he experiences his own maturity toward adulthood. Bobby is the â€Å"quintessential†(2) bad guy in the story. He is a, â€Å"big, greasy thug who favors expletives. His shiftless brawn, mask-like face, and steel-toe boots make him a terrifying opponent† (2). Even thought he gets hit with the tire-iron he somehow gets up off the ground, composes himself, and manages to keep his â€Å"bad guy† image by demolishing the car that belonged to the narrators mom. Only after he realizes he cant get his hands on the narrator to hurt him, he decides to demolish the car instead thinking he will leave them there stranded. And so these three young men have to endure many difficult incidents beginning with the narrator loosing the key to the car, then getting into the â€Å"murky† and â€Å"fetid† water of Greasy Lake. This story showed a dual point of view, being told a more mature, older narrator, as he looked back from his younger years describing this one night as a, â€Å"initiation ritual† (Masterplots II) or a, â€Å"dark night of the soul,† in religious terms. Masterplots II is saying that they have grown since the beginning of the night, become more mature. Masterplots II also explains the theme as being summarized by, â€Å"Through suffering comes wisdom. This story has a lot of support of this as the narrator is constantly making mistake after mistake, so therefore he is being punished, then after he gets out of the water, he is like new, the sun comes up. He finds the key he dropped, rejected the offer of drugs he is actually showing the responsibilities of an adult. He also realizes they can drive home because Bobby didnt slash the tires on his moms car. The narrator is probably so confused at the end of the story, not knowing if he should be excited he is finally growing up or dreading what his mother will say when he arrives with her car totally demolished.

Value Management

Executive Summary Value management comprises an important aspect in the management of construction projects. It promotes the value of a project to various internal and external stakeholders. The value of the project improves due to the consideration of various value elements.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Value Management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Therefore, in a bid to be successful in value management, it is imperative for project owners to define the project objectives clearly. Secondly, the value driver in the project should be outlined clearly. Furthermore, it is also imperative for the project owner to appreciate the existence of risks, which might affect the project outcomes. The consideration of these elements fosters the value of the project to the various project stakeholders. This report illustrates the value management and risk management aspects to be considered by the local government auth ority in the UK in implementing a construction project aimed at improving the society’s welfare. Introduction Projects have become a fundamental approach through which governments are adopting in an effort to improve the welfare of the general population. Some of the major projects that have been initiated by different governments relate to the construction of public utilities such as sports centres and transport networks. Additionally, the degree of complexity and costs of projects vary across different set ups. Nevertheless, it is crucial for contractors to adopt effective project management practices in order to deliver value to the target stakeholders. Therefore, the incorporation of optimal value and risk management practices is critical in the delivery of projects. Dallas (111) proposes that value management ensures that the end-user requirements and the project owners’ values are maximised. Thus, value management focuses on maximising the functional benefit of t he project. Conversely, risk management minimises deviation from the desired project outcome. The definition of value is subjective, which means that it depends on the prevailing context. Some of the major contexts of value relate to the exchange value, environmental value, social value, the use value, and image value.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Despite variation in its meaning, value is comprised of different value drivers. Dallas asserts that values drivers â€Å"include the benefits that contribute to the value of the completed project to the different stakeholders† (125). Failure to incorporate value drivers limits the effectiveness with which a project attains its desired objectives. The concepts of risk and value management are based on results. Therefore, it is essential for project managers to formulate performance measures to assess the outcomes attaine d. This goal can be attained by incorporating a number of generic drivers (Dallas 126). Purpose In its quest to improve the welfare of its citizens, the local government authority in the UK has allocated  £ 9.5 million to be used in a high profile construction project. The project intends to at bring together and provide citizens with access to a number of local authority, leisure, and community services within a single facility. In a bid to succeed in improving the welfare of the citizens, the local government authority [project owner] should ensure that the project delivers high value to the end users. This report analyses the value and risk management aspects that should be considered in improving the project’s capacity to deliver value for money (VFM) and enrich the citizens’ experience. Strategic definitions and value drivers Bontempi emphasises that value engineering culture â€Å"is focused on holistic maximisation of value for money† (89). Thus, the cl ient should consider the different elements in the delivery of the project. The local government authority is committed to delivering a high social value by enhancing the connection between its citizens and fostering positive interaction through the construction project.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Value Management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In a bid to improve the project outcome, the local government should adopt a holistic approach in managing the value and risk within the construction project. The local government authority should consider a number of generic value drivers as explained herein. Achieve desired financial performance The local government should assess its financial capacity to construct the intended facility by conducting a cost analysis in order to estimate the total cost of the project. Thus, the client will compare the budgetary allocation for the project and the estimated cost. T his move will provide insight on the possible financial constraints that might be incurred in implementing the project. Consequently, the client will determine the need for contingency budgeting. Furthermore, the client will determine the source of additional funds such as loans from financial institutions in advance. This aspect will improve the clients’ capacity to deal with unprecedented project cost overruns. Cost estimation will enable the client to establish an effective basis for cost control. Therefore, the likelihood of the project being delivered successfully will increase. Operational efficiency The decision by the local government authority to invest in the construction project was motivated by the need to transform the community and improve the quality of life amongst citizens within the city and its surrounding. The client intends to achieve this goal by ensuring that citizens access diverse local government, leisure, and community services under one roof. In a bid to achieve this goal, the local government authority should ensure the attainment of a high level of operational efficiency upon the completion of the project. Some of the elements that the client should ensure involve the facility’s capacity to enhance interaction between various units established. Ensuring a high level of operational efficiency will improve the level of satisfaction amongst the end-users [citizens].Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Dallas is of the opinion that a â€Å"building should actively enable the work and activities that it is designed for by offering opportunities for interaction and communication† (127). Environmental dimension In the process of implementing the project, the client should not solely focus on the cost of the project. On the contrary, a holistic engineering management and value management approach should be taken into account. Therefore, the local government authority should adopt a culture that recognises different stakeholders who might be affected by the project in order to enhance the VFM. One of the aspects that the client should consider entails ensuring that the project is environmentally sustainable. For example, the construction should not affect the prevailing biodiversity adversely or cause environmental pollution. Cost of maintenance The value of the intended construction project to both the end user and the project owner will be affected by the cost of maintenance. Thus, the project owner should ensure that the cost of maintenance is significantly low in order to enhance its long-term sustainability. Additionally, the cost of maintenance should be minimal because the project will require annual funding by the local government authority. Therefore, minimising the cost of maintenance will ensure that the end-users are not over-burdened, for example, by increasing the levies in order to access the services provided within the facility. Compliance with third-party constraints The project owner should ensure that the construction project complies with the implemented legal requirements. Some of the elements that the project owner should ensure entail the safety and health of the end-user. For example, the local government authority should comply with the building recommendations stipulated by the Commission for Architecture in the Building Environment [CABE]. Furthermore, the owner should ensure that the project aligns with the stipulated legal req uirements. Compliance with legal requirements should be ensured during the delivery process and after completion of the project. Project delivery efficiency The project owner should ensure that effective project management processes are adopted in order to improve the outcome. One of the areas that the local government should consider relates to the management of the project procurement process. Bower emphasises that procurement â€Å"is seen as an adjunct in the delivery of value† (195). In a bid to achieve a high level of efficiency in the project procurement process, the project owner should assess the various activities that constitute an effective project value chain. By adopting the concept of project value chain, the project owner will perceive the various project tasks as value-adding activities. Consequently, the project owner should ensure that the project materials and resources are utilised optimally. Furthermore, the project manager should ensure that the right p eople are engaged in the project delivery process. Ability to attract and retain occupants The project owner intends to improve citizens’ wellbeing through the project. However, this goal is only attainable if the constructed project attracts employees or occupants. The facility should be characterised by a favourable working environment. Furthermore, the facility should inspire the target stakeholders by fostering a positive experience. Project stakeholders Hill (183) defines project stakeholders as the various individuals or entities that have some stakes in the outcome of a project. Projects have two main categories of stakeholders, viz. the internal and external stakeholders. In the process of implementing a project, it is critical for the project manager to ensure that the affiliation of the stakeholders to the project is understood extensively. Furthermore, Hill (183) proposes that project stakeholders have a significant impact on project management environment. Subsequ ently, effective profiling of stakeholders will provide insight on how to manage their influence on the project. The intended construction project will be influenced by the divergent interests of a number of stakeholders as evaluated below. Internal stakeholders This category of stakeholders is comprised of project participants who provide decisions and senior-directions that guide project implementation in order to achieve the desired objectives (Hill 183). Project Sponsor – the local government authority in the UK constitutes the principle project sponsor. The sponsor’s decision-making authority is relatively high, as evidenced by the capacity to make decisions on project continuation and termination. Project Management Office Director – the PMO Director should conduct project management control and oversight. The director should also assess the status of the various project activities continuously. Project Team [technical staff] – the project team sho uld be comprised of members characterised by different expertise in order to ensure the successful delivery of the project activities. The integration of different experts into the team will ensure that the project team deals with complexities that might arise during the implementation process. Project Manager – the project manager will be charged with the responsibility of overseeing the various project management activities that need to be executed during the project’s life cycle. External stakeholders The project owner should identify the external stakeholders. Some of the external stakeholders that should be considered include End users – these involve the final consumers of the project. In this project, the end-users entail the citizens living within the city and its vicinity. The end users will be interested in deriving maximum satisfaction by consuming the services offered by the facility upon its successful completion. External public parties – these include the public organisations such as government agencies, trade associations, labour unions, and government authorities, for example, the construction planning departments [CABE and the Royal Institute of British Architects]. Chinyoi and Olomolaiye (82) argue that these stakeholders have legitimate authority to ensure that the intended constructions adhere to the building regulations on top of being approved by the relevant authorities. Project risk management Raftery (76) asserts that construction projects are complex and they consume a substantial amount of resources. However, the occurrence of unexpected events or risks may affect project delivery adversely. Therefore, it is imperative for the project owner to identify and manage the possible risks that might occur at different phases of the implementation process. Some of the risk events that might be encountered during the construction project are illustrated below. Pre-design stage – the occurrence of confli cts amongst the various interest groups might lead to project delays, hence increasing the cost of the project due to changes in the market environment. Moreover, cost estimation errors might affect the execution of various project tasks. Concept design stage – one of the major risks that might be encountered during this stage relates to delay in the approval of the project, for example, by the construction authorities. Tendering stage – submission of incomplete project tender documents and unqualified bidders might also increase time management risk. Construction stage – the project completion might also be affected by delays and acquisition of the project site among other factors like bad weather. Additionally, the increment in the cost of the project might affect the project outcome adversely. Considering the impact of risk on a project, it is critical for the project manager to adopt effective risk management techniques such as cost analysis and time manage ment. Furthermore, the project owners should outsource construction experts in order to ensure that the project risks are identified and managed effectively. The project owners’ commitment in managing risk influences the extent of support received from the various project stakeholders. Evaluating project success The project sponsor should consider a number of parameters in assessing the success of the project. Some of these parameters include Adherence to the predetermined timeframe – projects should be delivered within a specific pre-determined timeframe in order to increase their value. Thus, the Project Manager should adopt effective time management techniques. Failure to manage project time optimally might increase the cost of the project due to economic changes. Quality of the project outcome – the project outcome should comply with the quality specifications outlined by the project owner. In a bid to improve the quality of the project, it is imperative fo r the project manager to assess continuously the quality attained in the various phases of the project. Cost analysis – the project sponsor should evaluate whether the project has been implemented successfully within the budgetary allocation. Stakeholder satisfaction – the local government authority should also assess the extent to which the project outcome has met and exceeded the stakeholders’ goals. Project development and value studies The project sponsor is committed to ensuring that the desired outcome is attained. In a bid to achieve this goal, the project sponsor has allocated 5 days of study time that the project team will undertake on value management/ value engineering concepts in the project timeframe. The value studies will be conducted with reference to the stages outlined by the 2013 RIBA plan of work. Best and Valence (243) emphasise that value management studies play a fundamental role in enhancing project delivery by promoting a consensus betw een the various project participants. In order to improve the project outcome, it is imperative for the project sponsor to consider two main value study activities as explained herein. Core objectives – the success of the project in delivering the intended outcome will depend on the extent to which the project stakeholders understand the project’s core objectives. Therefore, it is essential for the project owners to train the stakeholders on the diverse project objectives such as quality objectives. By gaining prior knowledge on the project objectives, the project team members will be focused at executing the assigned tasks. Integrating the core objectives as one of the study elements will lead to the improvement of the project outcome. Project sustainability – another aspect that the project owner should consider during the value management studies relates to project sustainability. This study should focus on ensuring that stakeholders develop a comprehensive understanding on the various sustainability targets to be achieved. Some of the elements that should be considered during the project sustainability workshop relate to the adherence to environmental requirements, for example, the climate parameters that will be ensured in the project. The two value management studies should be conducted at different points of the project lifecycle. The value management study with reference to the project’s core objectives should be conducted during the project preparation and brief stage. The study will promote a high level of information synthesis amongst the project stakeholders, hence increasing their level of orientation towards the project. The main participants during the value management-study workshop on the project’s core objectives will include the project sponsors, project manager, the project team, the end-users and the government, and non-government regulatory bodies in the construction industry. Conversely, value managem ent study on sustainability should be conducted at the concept design stage. Kelly, Male, and Graham (43) assert that during the concept design stage, a comprehensive structural design of the intended project is developed. Additionally, the concept designing stage also involves outlining the preliminary project cost information and the project strategies to be adopted. The study on sustainability should mainly involve internal project stakeholders such as the project sponsor, project owners, project team members, the regulatory authorities, and the project manager. One of the agendas that should be taken into account during the sustainability study session relates to how the project will deliver sustainable benefits amongst the target end-users. Furthermore, the study should also illustrate how sustainable VFM will be attained. By considering these stakeholders in the value management and engineering studies, the project owner will entrench the level of participation and support dur ing the implementation process. Thus, the probability of attaining optimal outcome will increase. In order to improve the effectiveness of the value management studies, it is essential for the project owner to conduct the study through an isolated workshop environment. Therefore, the project owner should identify an effective location within which the value management studies should be conducted. Adopting an isolated workshop environment will minimise interruptions from outside agents. Furthermore, this approach will foster collaboration amongst the various project participants, hence increasing the project outcome. Value management study on the projects core objectives should take 2 days while study on project sustainability should take 3 days in order to ensure that the various stakeholders understand the various elements associated with the project such as the project cost, project strategies, and project design. Appraisal of the effectiveness of the value management studies The project owner should evaluate the effectiveness of the value management studies by assessing two main elements. First, the project owner should evaluate the level of understanding amongst the project participants on the value management studies undertaken. Secondly, the appraisal process should also evaluate the project participants’ degree of commitment to ensuring that the desired outcome is attained. Conclusion It is important for the project owner to ensure that effective value management and risk management practices are adopted in order to achieve the project objectives. Some of the value management practices that the project owner should consider include defining the value drivers and the parameters to be adopted in assessing the success with which the value drivers have been integrated into the project. Furthermore, the project owners must ensure that the external and internal project stakeholders are involved in the project planning and delivery process. The project owner decision to integrate value management studies will play a vital role in improving the level of commitment, focus, and support amongst the project participants. Works Cited Best, Rick, and Gerard Valence. Building in value; predesigned issues, New York: Routledge, 2013. Print. Bontempi, Franco. Structural and construction, Chicago: CRC Press, 2003. Print. Bower, Denise. Management of procurement, London: Thomas Telford, 2003. Print. Chinyoi, Ezekiel, and Paul Olomolaiye. Construction stakeholder management,  Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010. Print. Dallas, Michael. Value and risk management: a guide to best practices, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2006. Print. Hill, Gerard. The complete project management methodology and toolkit, Chicago: CRC Press, 2009. Print. Kelly, John, Steven Male, and Drummond Graham. Value management of  construction projects, Oxford: Blackwell Science, 2004. Print. Raftery, John. Risk analysis in project management, New York: Routledge, 2003. Print. This report on Value Management was written and submitted by user Ahmad Q. to help you with your own studies. 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